Metastasis is one of the most important challenges in cancer therapy strategies.1 Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of metastasis is a powerful weapon to increase the survival of patients with cancer and improve their quality of life. For the first time, Jean Claude used the term ‘metastasis’ as one of the most important hallmarks of cancer in 1829.2 Metastasis, a Greek word, means ‘displacement’ (meta meaning ‘next’ and stasis, ‘placement’).3 This term refers to a general description of migration and invasion of tumor cells from the primary tumor site to secondary sites. Metastasis is considered as one of the key etiologies of cancer-related death; therefore, understanding its mechanism in depth has been always on demand in basic and clinical sciences.4
Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is one of the several processes, which is involved in metastasis, and development of drug resistance in cancer.5 During EMT, cells gradually convert from epithelial to a mesenchymal phenotype. This enables cancer cells to be more motile, have less extracellular matrix adhesion and be prone to detachment and moving toward distant organs. Beside metastasis, EMT is involved in embryonic development, wound healing, tissue fibrosis and scar formation.6–8
Macroautophagy (hereafter …
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