Figure 1 Recommended therapy for stable COPD by GOLD category. Figure adapted from the recommendations of the GOLD1 (http://www.goldcopd.org, accessed Jan 2017). *First choice therapy includes short-acting β-2-agonists or short-acting anticholinergic medications as needed for all categories. First choice therapy also includes the first entry followed by a clinical evaluation. If the patient still has symptoms, then moving to the second entry is advised. **FEV1 impairment is FEV1≥50% predicted for GOLD categories A and B, and FEV1<50% predicted for categories C and D. †Symptoms based on the mMRC scale: 0—SOB with strenuous exertion, 1—SOB with hurrying on level ground or inclines, 2—SOB with normal walking on level ground >100 m, 3—SOB within 100 m, and 4—SOB with daily activities; mMRC<2=low symptoms and mMRC≥2=high symptoms. COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CXCL, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand; FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 s; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; GOLD, Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease; ICAM, intercellular Adhesion molecule; ICS, inhaled corticosteroid; LABA, long-acting β-2 agonist; LAMA, long-acting antimuscarinic; MAC, macrophage adhesion ligand; mMRC, modified Medical Research Council; SOB, shortness of breath; VCAM, vascular cell adhesion molecule.