Cell type | Effects |
Global | ↓ Proinflammatory and chemotactic factors17 ~ Coagulopathy37 ↓ Wound healing28 ↑ Infection risk (long term)40 |
Lymphocyte | ↑ Apoptosis3 ↓ Proliferation33 ↓ Circulating counts5 |
Neutrophil | ↓ Recruitment21,22 ↓ Inflammatory genes22 ↓ Apoptosis275 ↑ Circulating counts22 |
Monocyte, macrophage | ↓ ROS, inflammasome20 ↓ Shift M1,21 M2276 ↓ Chemotactic factors43 ↓ Adhesion, recruitment, accumulation5,43 ↓ Efferocytosis, phagocytosis43 ↓ Circulating counts5 |
Alveolar and airway epithelium | ↑ Barrier integrity18,19,277–279 ↑ SPA, SPD280,281 ↑ Type II maturation282 ↓ MUC5AC283 ↓ Type I>type II27,282 ↑ Apoptosis23 ↓ Proliferation, repair24–26 |
Fibroblast | ↑ Contractility35 ↓ Collagen deposition28 ~ Proliferation28 34 |
Endothelium | ↓ NOS/vasoconstriction15 ↓ Angiogenesis284 ↑ VWF, TF, ICAM, VCAM30–32 ↑ Neutrophil adhesion30–32 |
GC, glucocorticoid; ROS, reactive oxygen species ; VWF, von Willebrand factor.